Abstract
Academic writing development in English Medium Education (EME) contexts is under-researched, particularly its longitudinal trajectory. This study, conducted in a private business university in Spain, compares the academic writing progress of students in EME programmes with those in non-EME (Spanish as a Medium of Education, SME) over the first two years of their academic courses. Using pre- and post-test holistic IELTS writing scores, the study involved EME participants who received 60 hours of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) training and SME participants who received 240 hours of English for Specific and Academic Purposes (ESP/EAP) courses. The study allowed for controlled comparison as the same content lecturers teach in both mediums, and the same language lecturers teach ESP/EAP. Findings indicated that initially higher-scoring EME participants showed limited improvement, whereas SME participants demonstrated substantial improvement in writing proficiency. Limited progress in EME students is linked to insufficient ESP/EAP support and a possible lack of linguistic feedback within content courses, as evidenced by assessment inconsistencies between English- and Spanish-medium programme academic guides. This study highlights the need for dedicated writing development in EME contexts, increased collaboration between EME content and ESP/EAP lecturers, and encourages greater attention to linguistic feedback in content courses to foster sustained writing development.
References
Authors (2024)
Airey, J. (2012). I don’t teach language. The linguistic attitudes of physics lecturers in Sweden. AILA Review, 25(25), 64-79. https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.25.05air
Airey, J. (2016). EAP, EMI or CLIL. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes (pp. 76–89). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657455-6
Airey, J. (2020). The content lecturer and English-medium instruction (EMI): epilogue to the special issue on EMI in higher education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1732290
Aizawa, I., Rose, H., Thompson, G., & Curle, S. (2020). Beyond the threshold: Exploring English language proficiency, linguistic challenges, and academic language skills of Japanese participants in an English medium instruction programme. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820965510
Arnbjörnsdóttir, B., & Prinz, P. (2017). From EFL to EMI. ESP Today, 5(2), 172–195. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2017.5.2.3
Barkaoui, K. (2025). The relationship between English language proficiency test scores and academic achievement: A longitudinal study of two tests, Language Testing, 10.1177/02655322251319284
Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D. R. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing. Routledge.
Bhatia, V. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View. London: Continuum
Breeze, R., & Dafouz, E. (2017). Constructing complex Cognitive Discourse Functions in higher education: An exploratory study of exam answers in Spanish- and English-medium instruction settings. System, 70, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.09.024
Costa, F., & Mastellotto, L. (2022). The role of English for specific purposes (ESP) in supporting the linguistic dimension in English-medium instruction (EMI). CLIL Journal of Innovation and Research in Plurilingual and Pluricultural Education, 5(2), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/clil.91
Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2020). ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23463-8_3
Dafouz, E. (2020). Undergraduate student academic writing in English-medium higher education: Explorations through the ROAD-MAPPING lens. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100888
Dafouz, E., & Gray, J. (2022). Rethinking the roles of ELT in English-medium education in multilingual university settings: an introduction. ELT Journal, 76(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab096
Dafouz, E. (2025). Empowering minds: The role of disciplinary literacies in English-medium internationalised universities. Language Teaching, 1–14. doi:10.1017/S026144482400048X
Dimova, S. (2020). English language requirements for enrolment in EMI programs in higher education: A European case. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100896.
Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction - a growing global phenomenon. British Council. Available online: https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4f72cdf8-b2eb-4d41-a785-4a283bf6caaa (accessed on 24 April 2025).
Dearden, J., Macaro, E., & Akincioglu, M. (2016). English medium instruction in universities: A collaborative experiment in Turkey. Studies in English Language Teaching, 4(1), 51–76. https//doi.org/10.22158/selt.v4n1p51
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Pavón, V. (2019). The integration of language and content in English-medium instruction courses: Lecturers’ beliefs and practices. Ibérica, (38), 151–176. Retrieved from https://revistaiberica.org/index.php/iberica/article/view/96
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2011). The first term of university: Implications for EAP. ELT Journal, 65(4), 376-386. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/elt/ccq072
Ferris, D., & Lombardi, A. (2020). Collaborative placement of multilingual writers: Combining formal assessment and self-evaluation. Journal of Writing Assessment, 13(1). Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7z6683m6
Green, A. (2005). EAP study recommendations and score gains on the IELTS Academic Writing test. Assessing writing, 10(1), 44-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2005.02.002
Harrington, M., & Roche, T. (2014). Identifying academically at-risk students in an English-as-a-Lingua-Franca university setting. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 15, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2014.05.003
Helm, F. (2019). EMI, internationalisation, and the digital. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 314–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1643823
Hyland, K. (2016). General and specific EAP. In Hyland, K., & Shaw, P. (Eds) The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes. (1st Ed.). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657455-2
Hyland, K. (2019) What messages do students take from feedback? In Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (eds.), Feedback in second language writing (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp: 265-284.
IELTS. (2023, December 7). IELTS remains the world's most trusted test of English. https://ielts.org/news-and-insights/ielts-remains-the-worlds-most-trusted-test-of-english
Kamaşak, R., & Sahan, K. (2023). Academic Success in English Medium Courses: Exploring Student Challenges, Opinions, Language Proficiency and L2 Use. RELC Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882231167611
Kang, O., Ahn, H., Yaw, K., and Chung, S-Y. (2021.) Investigation of relationships between learner background, linguistic progression, and score gain on IELTS, IELTS Research Reports Online Series, No. 1. British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP: IELTS Australia. Available at https://www.ielts.org/teaching-and-research/research-reports
Kuteeva, M. (2013). Graduate learners’ approaches to genre-analysis tasks: Variations across and within four disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 32(2), 84-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2012.11.004
Lasagabaster, D. (2018). Fostering team teaching: Mapping out a research agenda for English-medium instruction at university level. Language Teaching, 51(3), 400-416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000113
Lei, J., Hu, G. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 52(2), 99-126.
Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018). A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000350
Mancho-Barés, G., & Aguilar-Pérez, M. (2020). EMI lecturers’ practices in correcting English: Resources for language teaching?. Journal of immersion and content-based language education, 8(2), 257-284. https://doi.org/10.1075/jicb.19011.man
Nguyen, A. (2023). Unravelling EMI as a Predictor of English Proficiency in Vietnamese Higher Education: Exploring Learners' Backgrounds as a Variable. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 13(2), 347-371. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.38278
Panadero, E., Fraile, J., Fernández Ruiz, J., Castilla-Estévez, D., & Ruiz, M. A. (2019). Spanish university assessment practices: Examination tradition with diversity by faculty. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(3), 379–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1512553
Peltekov, P. (2021). The International English Language Testing System (IELTS): A critical review. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(2), 395-406. https://dx.doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i2.581
Rodriguez Melchor, M. D., & Walsh, A. S. (2022). “I’m really not assessing the language” : EMI lecturers’ perceptions of their implicit and explicit assessment of students’ language production. Ibérica, (44), 345–368. https://doi.org/10.17398/2340-2784.44.345
Rogier, D. (2012). The effects of English-medium instruction on language proficiency of students enrolled in higher education in the UAE. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Exeter]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Roothooft, H., Breeze, R., & Meyer, M. (2025). English Writing Competence and EMI Performance: Student and Expert Perceptions of Academic Writing in EMI. ESP Today, 13(1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2025.13.1.1
Rose, H., Curle, S., Aizawa, I., & Thompson, G. (2020). What drives success in English medium taught courses? The interplay between language proficiency, academic skills, and motivation. Studies in Higher Education, 45(11), 2149-2161. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1590
Sánchez-Pérez, M. (2023). The impact of EMI on participant English writing proficiency in a Spanish undergraduate engineering context. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 13(2), 373-397. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.38279
Schoepp, K. (2018). Predictive validity of the IELTS in an English as a medium of instruction environment. Higher Education Quarterly, 72(4), 271-285. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12163
Soruç, A., Altay, M., Curle, S., & Yuksel, D. (2021). Students’ academic language-related challenges in English Medium Instruction: The Role of English Proficiency and Language Gain. System, 103, 102651. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SYSTEM.2021.102651
Uysal, H. H. (2010). A critical review of the IELTS Academic Writing Task 2. ELT Journal, 64(3), 329–337.https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccp026
Wilkinson, R. (2013). English-medium instruction at a Dutch University: Challenges and pitfalls. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. Sierra (Eds.). English-medium instruction at universities (pp. 3-26). Multilingual Matters.
Wingate, U. (2015). Academic literacy and student diversity: The case for inclusive practice (Vol. 42). Multilingual Matters. ISBN: 978-1-7830-9347-2
Wingate, U. (2022). Student support and teacher education in English for Academic Purposes and English Medium Instruction: Two sides of the same coin? Language Teaching, 1-12.
Yang, W. (2015). Content and language integrated learning next in Asia: Evidence of learners’ achievement in CLIL education from a Taiwan tertiary degree programme. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(4), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2014.904840
Yuan, R. (2021). Promoting English-as-a-medium-of-instruction (EMI) teacher development in higher education: What can language specialists do and become. RELC Journal, doi:10.1177/0033688220980173
Yuksel, D., Soruç, A., Altay, M. & Curle, S. (2023). A longitudinal study at an English medium instruction university in Turkey: the interplay between English language improvement and academic success. Applied Linguistics Review, 14(3), 533-552. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2020-0097
Zhou, S., McKinley, J., Rose, H., & Xu, X. (2022). English medium higher education in China: challenges and ELT support, ELT Journal, 76(2), 261–271, https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab082
Airey, J. (2012). I don’t teach language. The linguistic attitudes of physics lecturers in Sweden. AILA Review, 25(25), 64-79. https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.25.05air
Airey, J. (2016). EAP, EMI or CLIL. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes (pp. 76–89). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657455-6
Airey, J. (2020). The content lecturer and English-medium instruction (EMI): epilogue to the special issue on EMI in higher education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1732290
Aizawa, I., Rose, H., Thompson, G., & Curle, S. (2020). Beyond the threshold: Exploring English language proficiency, linguistic challenges, and academic language skills of Japanese participants in an English medium instruction programme. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820965510
Arnbjörnsdóttir, B., & Prinz, P. (2017). From EFL to EMI. ESP Today, 5(2), 172–195. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2017.5.2.3
Barkaoui, K. (2025). The relationship between English language proficiency test scores and academic achievement: A longitudinal study of two tests, Language Testing, 10.1177/02655322251319284
Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D. R. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing. Routledge.
Bhatia, V. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View. London: Continuum
Breeze, R., & Dafouz, E. (2017). Constructing complex Cognitive Discourse Functions in higher education: An exploratory study of exam answers in Spanish- and English-medium instruction settings. System, 70, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.09.024
Costa, F., & Mastellotto, L. (2022). The role of English for specific purposes (ESP) in supporting the linguistic dimension in English-medium instruction (EMI). CLIL Journal of Innovation and Research in Plurilingual and Pluricultural Education, 5(2), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/clil.91
Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2020). ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23463-8_3
Dafouz, E. (2020). Undergraduate student academic writing in English-medium higher education: Explorations through the ROAD-MAPPING lens. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100888
Dafouz, E., & Gray, J. (2022). Rethinking the roles of ELT in English-medium education in multilingual university settings: an introduction. ELT Journal, 76(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab096
Dafouz, E. (2025). Empowering minds: The role of disciplinary literacies in English-medium internationalised universities. Language Teaching, 1–14. doi:10.1017/S026144482400048X
Dimova, S. (2020). English language requirements for enrolment in EMI programs in higher education: A European case. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100896.
Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction - a growing global phenomenon. British Council. Available online: https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4f72cdf8-b2eb-4d41-a785-4a283bf6caaa (accessed on 24 April 2025).
Dearden, J., Macaro, E., & Akincioglu, M. (2016). English medium instruction in universities: A collaborative experiment in Turkey. Studies in English Language Teaching, 4(1), 51–76. https//doi.org/10.22158/selt.v4n1p51
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Pavón, V. (2019). The integration of language and content in English-medium instruction courses: Lecturers’ beliefs and practices. Ibérica, (38), 151–176. Retrieved from https://revistaiberica.org/index.php/iberica/article/view/96
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2011). The first term of university: Implications for EAP. ELT Journal, 65(4), 376-386. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/elt/ccq072
Ferris, D., & Lombardi, A. (2020). Collaborative placement of multilingual writers: Combining formal assessment and self-evaluation. Journal of Writing Assessment, 13(1). Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7z6683m6
Green, A. (2005). EAP study recommendations and score gains on the IELTS Academic Writing test. Assessing writing, 10(1), 44-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2005.02.002
Harrington, M., & Roche, T. (2014). Identifying academically at-risk students in an English-as-a-Lingua-Franca university setting. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 15, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2014.05.003
Helm, F. (2019). EMI, internationalisation, and the digital. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 314–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1643823
Hyland, K. (2016). General and specific EAP. In Hyland, K., & Shaw, P. (Eds) The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes. (1st Ed.). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657455-2
Hyland, K. (2019) What messages do students take from feedback? In Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (eds.), Feedback in second language writing (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp: 265-284.
IELTS. (2023, December 7). IELTS remains the world's most trusted test of English. https://ielts.org/news-and-insights/ielts-remains-the-worlds-most-trusted-test-of-english
Kamaşak, R., & Sahan, K. (2023). Academic Success in English Medium Courses: Exploring Student Challenges, Opinions, Language Proficiency and L2 Use. RELC Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882231167611
Kang, O., Ahn, H., Yaw, K., and Chung, S-Y. (2021.) Investigation of relationships between learner background, linguistic progression, and score gain on IELTS, IELTS Research Reports Online Series, No. 1. British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP: IELTS Australia. Available at https://www.ielts.org/teaching-and-research/research-reports
Kuteeva, M. (2013). Graduate learners’ approaches to genre-analysis tasks: Variations across and within four disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 32(2), 84-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2012.11.004
Lasagabaster, D. (2018). Fostering team teaching: Mapping out a research agenda for English-medium instruction at university level. Language Teaching, 51(3), 400-416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000113
Lei, J., Hu, G. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 52(2), 99-126.
Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018). A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000350
Mancho-Barés, G., & Aguilar-Pérez, M. (2020). EMI lecturers’ practices in correcting English: Resources for language teaching?. Journal of immersion and content-based language education, 8(2), 257-284. https://doi.org/10.1075/jicb.19011.man
Nguyen, A. (2023). Unravelling EMI as a Predictor of English Proficiency in Vietnamese Higher Education: Exploring Learners' Backgrounds as a Variable. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 13(2), 347-371. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.38278
Panadero, E., Fraile, J., Fernández Ruiz, J., Castilla-Estévez, D., & Ruiz, M. A. (2019). Spanish university assessment practices: Examination tradition with diversity by faculty. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(3), 379–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1512553
Peltekov, P. (2021). The International English Language Testing System (IELTS): A critical review. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 6(2), 395-406. https://dx.doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v6i2.581
Rodriguez Melchor, M. D., & Walsh, A. S. (2022). “I’m really not assessing the language” : EMI lecturers’ perceptions of their implicit and explicit assessment of students’ language production. Ibérica, (44), 345–368. https://doi.org/10.17398/2340-2784.44.345
Rogier, D. (2012). The effects of English-medium instruction on language proficiency of students enrolled in higher education in the UAE. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Exeter]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Roothooft, H., Breeze, R., & Meyer, M. (2025). English Writing Competence and EMI Performance: Student and Expert Perceptions of Academic Writing in EMI. ESP Today, 13(1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2025.13.1.1
Rose, H., Curle, S., Aizawa, I., & Thompson, G. (2020). What drives success in English medium taught courses? The interplay between language proficiency, academic skills, and motivation. Studies in Higher Education, 45(11), 2149-2161. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1590
Sánchez-Pérez, M. (2023). The impact of EMI on participant English writing proficiency in a Spanish undergraduate engineering context. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 13(2), 373-397. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.38279
Schoepp, K. (2018). Predictive validity of the IELTS in an English as a medium of instruction environment. Higher Education Quarterly, 72(4), 271-285. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12163
Soruç, A., Altay, M., Curle, S., & Yuksel, D. (2021). Students’ academic language-related challenges in English Medium Instruction: The Role of English Proficiency and Language Gain. System, 103, 102651. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SYSTEM.2021.102651
Uysal, H. H. (2010). A critical review of the IELTS Academic Writing Task 2. ELT Journal, 64(3), 329–337.https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccp026
Wilkinson, R. (2013). English-medium instruction at a Dutch University: Challenges and pitfalls. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. Sierra (Eds.). English-medium instruction at universities (pp. 3-26). Multilingual Matters.
Wingate, U. (2015). Academic literacy and student diversity: The case for inclusive practice (Vol. 42). Multilingual Matters. ISBN: 978-1-7830-9347-2
Wingate, U. (2022). Student support and teacher education in English for Academic Purposes and English Medium Instruction: Two sides of the same coin? Language Teaching, 1-12.
Yang, W. (2015). Content and language integrated learning next in Asia: Evidence of learners’ achievement in CLIL education from a Taiwan tertiary degree programme. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(4), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2014.904840
Yuan, R. (2021). Promoting English-as-a-medium-of-instruction (EMI) teacher development in higher education: What can language specialists do and become. RELC Journal, doi:10.1177/0033688220980173
Yuksel, D., Soruç, A., Altay, M. & Curle, S. (2023). A longitudinal study at an English medium instruction university in Turkey: the interplay between English language improvement and academic success. Applied Linguistics Review, 14(3), 533-552. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2020-0097
Zhou, S., McKinley, J., Rose, H., & Xu, X. (2022). English medium higher education in China: challenges and ELT support, ELT Journal, 76(2), 261–271, https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab082
Copyright (c) 2025 Rhona Patricia Lohan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
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